The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a federation comprised of seven individual Emirates. The applicable law in the UAE is a combination of Federal law, which applies, in the main, across the UAE, together with the laws of each Emirate (to the extent that such law is different to, but not inconsistent with, the Federal law). There is no system of binding precedent in the UAE. However, the judgments of the higher courts often act as strongly persuasive authorities.
There are certain financial free zones in the UAE that have, among other things, their own civil and commercial laws and courts: the Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC) and the Abu Dhabi Global Market (ADGM). These are typically described as the offshore jurisdictions.
DIFC law is primarily codified and can be described as a mix of civil and common law, whereas the ADGM's framework is primarily adopts English law. They each have their own legislation on specific matters including insolvency, employment, and arbitration.
Dubai, being one of the emirates comprising the United Arab Emirates is bound by both federal laws (which apply to all of the emirates) and laws specific to the Emirate of Dubai. The construction specific laws are comprised of federal and emirate laws and regulations. In the case of construction, the main sources of law are:
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All contractors working in Dubai must have a 'contractor classification licence' which will allow them to work as a contractor. In relation to other permits, the permits required are dependent on which municipality the site is located in.. While the details of the permit regime varies across each authority, generally all contractors are required to obtain:
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Health and safety laws and requirements are governed by both the federal law of the UAE and the law of the emirate of Dubai. The principal law governing entities and employees in relation to health and safety is the Labour Law. In addition, various Decisions of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs are also relevant.
The Labour Law and Ministerial Decisions set out the main standards suitable for occupational health and safety and imposes obligations on both the employer and the employee. An example of these obligations is the obligation on the employer to display the health and safety requirements on site in a prominent position and in the language of the employees. Training must be conducted on the dangers of not complying with the instructions as well as other general preventative measures to be taken.
The Labour Law needs to be taken into consideration after the completion of construction.
In addition to the federal law, Dubai has additional codes of practice, circulars and technical decisions relating to specific environmental and occupational health and safety issues. These are very specific and depend on where the construction takes place. Examples include circulars regarding asbestos and its disposal, hazardous wastes and hot working conditions.
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Environmental protection is governed by the Ministry of Environment and Water (MEW) federally. The MEW is empowered to delegate its powers to a 'Competent Authority' for each emirate. The main environmental framework in Dubai is at a local level. a The main federal laws which regulate environmental protection affecting the building and construction industry include:
Developers and contractors alike are required to undertake environmental impact assessments and stringent environmental protection preventative measures must be taken during the permitting and approvals process.
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It is generally the responsibility of the developer/owner to ensure that utilities will and can be provided to the site. During the planning and design phase of the project the developer/owner must obtain Non-Objection Certificates (NOC's) from each of the utility suppliers below.
Once construction is complete NOC's will again need to be obtained for the Completion Certificate to be issued.
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Certain provisions are implied into construction contracts by statute.
The Civil Code imposes certain conditions on muqwala (work) contracts, including a provision that a contractor is liable for damage caused by its acts.
The provisions in the Building Codes and guidelines issued by Dubai Municipality and the various free zones dictate the design terms and conditions.
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There is no local standard suite of construction contracts that are used in Dubai. Generally, the Dubai construction market has used an amended FIDIC style of contract however other forms of bespoke contracts are used, depending on the size and nature of the deal. It is important to note that in contracting with Local Government Departments in Dubai, Law No. 12 of 2020 concerning contracts of Government Departments in the Emirate of Dubai applies. Certain provisions about who can contract with the government departments, specific tendering requirements and performance bond stipulations are all provided for under the law.
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The vast majority of projects in the UAE have been delivered using the traditional construct only contract method. This means that the parties designing and constructing the works are engaged under separate contracts.
The main parties involved in a construction project are as follows:
This is the party procuring the work (typically, a land owner or land developer). In relation to building contracts, this entity is usually referred to as the 'employer'. Generally regarding contracts of appointment of professional consultants, the party is commonly referred to as the 'client'.
A main building contractor is engaged by the employer to carry out and complete the works. This contractor will usually, in turn, engage sub-contractors to carry out and complete separate parts of the works.
The team of professional consultants appointed can be broken down into two categories, the principal consultants being as follows:
| Designers |
Non-designers |
| Architect of record | Quantity surveyor |
| Civil and structural engineer | Contract administrator |
| Mechanical and electrical (or building services) engineer | Project manager (usually in larger projects only) |
This is the term used to describe the banks and other institutions and parties (for example, government organisations in the case of urban infrastructure and cultural/sports projects) who provide finance to the employer towards the development (and require security in return). Depending on the size of the project, there might be a single bank or a syndicate of banks.
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Under the most common method of procurement used in the UAE, the building contractor is responsible for the construction of the works, but not for the design.
Force majeure is provided for in Dubai law through the operation of the Civil Code. A party that is unable to perform its obligations because of an unforeseeable event outside its control can rely on the provisions of the Civil Code in order to avoid liability for non-performance of the agreement. This risk is usually also contractually prescribed in addition to the statutory requirements.
The FIDIC standard building contracts contain a force majeure clause allowing the contractor additional time to complete the works. A force majeure clause should be construed with close attention to the words that precede and follow it and with due regard to the nature and general terms of the contract.
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The Dubai Government has historically paid private or government contractors to build roads, government offices, schools and hospitals, funded by oil revenues. They would pay to have buildings built, then in addition pay an operator to run them. However, the Dubai Government is now looking for opportunities to utilise the public-private partnership (PPP) model in the domestic market.
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There is no statutory prohibition in Dubai on entering into a fixed-price contract. Commercially, fixed-price contracts are often negotiated as well as the circumstances in which such fixed-price can change. There are two main factors in a typical construction contract which provide for an alteration to the price. They are:
Whilst it is theoretically possible to draft a construction contract where the price is fixed (by omitting the factors just mentioned), the commercial reality is that both the employer/client and the building contractor will want to have some flexibility built into the contract; the employer/client will usually want to have the right to instruct variations and the contractor will certainly want the right to claim for losses suffered and expenses incurred for which it is not blameworthy. In essence, what parties usually mean when they talk about a 'fixed price contract' is a lump sum contract where the contractor's entitlement to additional money is limited, for example there are no fluctuation provisions and/or the events which would usually entitle the contractor to recompense for loss and/or expense are restricted. Parties may often refer to a 'guaranteed maximum price' contract which, again, is unlikely ever to truly mean this – employer/client changes and/or other possible occurrences will be excluded from the guaranteed maximum price figure.
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There are certain insurances required by the law. All contractors must take out employer's liability insurance which covers loss, damage, injury or disease caused to an employee of the company. Contractors must also take out public liability insurance if members of the general public or customers visit the contractor's premises or the contractor attends theirs. The contractor is then covered if injury to person or damage to property is caused by the contractor or his company.
Although not required by law, contractors will often take out:
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Employers will usually require either a parent company guarantee or a performance bond or sometimes both. Performance bonds can be either 'on demand' in nature (meaning that the surety would release bond monies on written demand from the employer) or 'on default' in nature (meaning that, broadly, an expert's or court decision would be required to be presented by the employer before the surety would release bond monies). If the contractor is being paid an advance payment, employers will also usually require an advance payment bond.
Any funder will usually require the benefit of all of the material contracts to which the employer is a party to be assigned to it by way of security. The documents to be assigned to the funder include the construction contract itself, the guarantee to the employer of the building contractor's obligations under the construction contract and the performance bond from a third-party surety to the employer.
In addition, funders will require contractual step-in rights in the main contractor's collateral warranty agreement given to them (which is sometimes termed a 'direct agreement'), giving them (or their appointee) the right either temporarily or permanently to assume the role of the employer under the construction contract where the employer is in breach, and/or while an attempt is made to remedy the breach.
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Methods of payment vary according to the works. The four main types of payment are:
Payment is usually made against the certification of completed works by the contract administrator. The inspection and certification of completed works can be made on a periodic basis (usually monthly) or a milestone basis (at pre-agreed specific milestones or stages).
There is no legislative system dealing with security of payment to contractor and/or subcontractors.
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There is no statutory prohibition in Dubai on requiring a fixed time for completion of the works. Practically, all construction contracts require the works to be completed by a specified date. Instead of the employer bringing a claim for general damages (compensation) for late completion of the works by the building contractor, it is standard for the contractor to be required to pay 'liquidated damages' (LDs).
LDs are damages that are fixed and the quantum is agreed by the parties in advance. There is no express prohibition in Dubai law on penalties and no requirement that LDs be a genuine pre-estimate of loss. A typical clause requires the building contractor to pay or allow the employer to deduct LDs at a rate per day or week of delay in the completion of the works. The rate is usually set out in an appendix to the construction contract.
A local court may reject the agreed LDs. If the court feels the loss is less or more than the fixed amount, the court can reduce or increase the LDs to equate to the loss.
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Contractual mechanisms for dealing with variations to the works vary depending on why the variation is requested:
The standard position is that the employer has the right to request variations to the works, for which the building contractor is entitled to additional time and money. The building contractor is also entitled to raise reasonable objections to material changes.
Where variations are necessary due to the building contractor's error, delay or default, the contractor is not usually entitled to additional time or money under the contract. The contractor is also liable for any delays caused to the project by these variations, and where the variation means that the work has not been carried out in accordance with the contract.
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Dubai construction contracts follow the references in UK standard construction contracts and commonly refer to completion of the works as Practical Completion. By this point in time, the works must be complete 'for all practical purposes' so as to enable beneficial occupation, except for a few minor items; the works may be practically complete even if there are latent defects, but a certificate should not be issued if there are any patent defects.
Practical Completion is usually achieved to the satisfaction of a third-party certifier such as the architect or employer's agent (in design and build procurement) who has the discretion to certify Practical Completion where minor items are incomplete.
One this has been achieved the relevant authority come and inspect the site and review the As-Built drawings to confirm that the building is completed in line with the design as approved previously. The building cannot be occupied until the final certificate from the relevant authority has been obtained.
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The general position is as follows:
The Commercial Code typically applies to construction contracts.
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Pursuant to the Civil Code, a contractor is liable for damage which he causes. Therefore, if the contractor causes property damage suffered by an end user, he will be liable under the Civil Code, subject to limitation periods. It will be necessary, at the outset of any new claim, to determine whether or not the limitation period has expired. If it has, the claim will be 'statute-barred' and the claimant may be prevented from bringing a claim against the alleged wrongdoer. If a claim is brought out of time, the defendant will be able to plead the defence of limitation and the claimant will have the burden of proving that the cause of action arose within the relevant statutory period.
Under the Jointly Owned Property Law of Dubai the owner's association has liability over any decennial liability claims which mirror the liability under the Civil Code.
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Broadly, the Civil Code provides an extended warranty period for contractors, and in certain circumstances architects, for a period of 10 years following completion of the works.
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There is no statute providing for third-party rights. Other than general Civil Code provisions, third parties may seek protection through collateral warranty agreements. A collateral warranty is an agreement which is related to another primary contract (the main building contract, sub-contract or consultant's appointment). It is entered into by the person engaged or appointed under the primary contract (ie the main building contractor, sub-contractor or consultant) in favour of a third-party beneficiary who is not a party to the primary contract but who has an interest in the construction project – namely, a funder, purchaser or tenant. These collateral warranties are also often referred to as duty of care deeds.
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There are no courts that specialize in or deal with construction disputes. Construction disputes (if litigated) are likely to be resolved by the civil courts.
The parties may agree to submit to the jurisdiction of the courts in the Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC) which has a Technology and Construction Division. The DIFC Courts describe it as a division that draws on specialist judges that will only hear technically complex cases.
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Private arbitration is used as an alternative to litigation.
Commercially, in contracts with international contractors, arbitration is the preferred method of dispute resolution.
The United Arab Emirates is a signatory to the New York Convention on the Enforcement of Arbitral Awards which allows the enforcement of arbitration awards in the UAE.
The leading institution for construction arbitration is the Dubai International Arbitration Centre and it is common for construction contracts to provide that in the case of a dispute, the matter is first to be referred to arbitration before being referred to the courts.
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Commercially, most contracts provide for some form of ADR, whether it be a requirement for negotiation by senior management, mediation or by referral to an expert on disputes regarding technical matters.
The UAE has introduced Federal Decree Law No. 40 of 2023 on Mediation and Conciliation in Civil and Commercial Disputes (Mediation and Conciliation Law). This law consolidates mediation and conciliation under a single framework and repeals both Federal Law No. 6 of 2021 on mediation, and Federal Law No. 5 of 2021 (which amended Federal Law No. 17 of 2016) on conciliation and court-annexed mediation centres.
Under the Mediation and Conciliation Law, mediation is voluntary and can be initiated either by contractual agreement or court referral (with consent). Three key routes are set out:
Key principles under the law include “without prejudice” communications. Articles 11(3) and 14(4) suspend limitation periods during mediation, and Article 14(4) allows courts to order interim measures to protect parties’ rights throughout the process.
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In this country, what are the main rules relating to health and safety on construction sites? Do these rules in any way relate to the use of the development after construction is completed?
Health and safety laws and requirements are governed by both the federal law of the UAE and the law of the emirate of Dubai. The principal law governing entities and employees in relation to health and safety is the Labour Law. In addition, various Decisions of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs are also relevant.
The Labour Law and Ministerial Decisions set out the main standards suitable for occupational health and safety and imposes obligations on both the employer and the employee. An example of these obligations is the obligation on the employer to display the health and safety requirements on site in a prominent position and in the language of the employees. Training must be conducted on the dangers of not complying with the instructions as well as other general preventative measures to be taken.
The Labour Law needs to be taken into consideration after the completion of construction.
In addition to the federal law, Dubai has additional codes of practice, circulars and technical decisions relating to specific environmental and occupational health and safety issues. These are very specific and depend on where the construction takes place. Examples include circulars regarding asbestos and its disposal, hazardous wastes and hot working conditions.
Last modified 1 May 2025