REALWorld Law

Taxes

Ongoing taxation

What taxes (if any) are payable by the owner of real estate on a recurring basis and can these be reduced or offset in any way?

Angola

Angola

When the property is not leased, real estate owners are subject to property tax according to the following rates: 

Property value Rate
Up to AOA 5 million 0%
Above AOA 5 million (levied on the excess of AOA 5 million) 0.5%

When the property is leased, property tax is levied on the income from properties (ie rental income) located in Angola at a rate of 25% (the tax amount may not be lower than 1% of the value of the property).

The taxable amount of the property tax, regarding leased properties, is the annual rent minus 40% of expenses related to the property. The property tax code foresees the following expenses: technical assistance with lifts, janitor and cleaning staff salaries, stair lighting, central air conditioning, building administration (when the number of unit owners is not less than 10) and building insurance.

When the tenant is an entity or a person with organized accounting, the property tax is subject to withholding tax.

The property tax levied on leased properties is not deductible for corporate income tax purposes.

Rents received by collective investment undertakings are taxable under the corporate income tax at a rate of 7.5% or 15%, depending on the nature of the CIU.

Argentina

Argentina

Real estate owned by individuals may be taxed by the Personal Goods Tax. It is a yearly tax that applies to assets exceeding the tax-exempt minimum at a rate ranging from 0.5% to 1.75% on local assets and from 0.7% to 2.25% on foreign assets. This tax applies to real estate and other assets exceeding the tax-exempt minimum.

It may apply to real estate located in Argentina and owned by resident or non-resident individuals, as well as to real estate located abroad and owned by residents.

If real estate located in Argentina is rented, or unexploited, or intended for recreational use, and is owned by an entity, company, enterprise, permanent establishment, or estate domiciled abroad, it will be presumed that the real estate is owned by resident individuals. They are taxed under the personal goods tax.

Amounts paid as personal goods tax are deductible as a cost for income tax purposes.

Provincial taxes may also apply to real estate. These taxes are typically annual and determined by each province. They may also be deductible for income tax purposes if conditions are met.

Municipal taxes must also be paid by the owner of real estate. Municipal taxes are typically meant to cover the costs of public lighting and hygiene, but other taxes may apply depending on each city. This tax is usually paid monthly and may be a deductible as a cost for income tax purposes.

Australia

Australia

Land tax may be payable annually by the land owner depending on the unencumbered value of the real estate. The amount of land tax payable depends on the Australian state or territory in which the property is located and various other factors including, among others, the land value and the type of corporate vehicle which owns the land (eg trust or company). For example, in New South Wales land tax is levied at the rate of 1.6 percent to 2 percent of the land value.

Foreign owners of land may also be subject to additional land tax surcharges in New South Wales (for residential property) and Victoria (for all property).

Also, certain exemptions are available in most Australian states/territories (eg land used for primary production such as forestry plantations).

Belgium

Belgium

Immovable withholding tax (précompte immobilier/onroerende voorheffing)

Immovable withholding tax on real estate amounts to 1.25% (in Brussels and Wallonia) or 3.97% (in Flanders) of the deemed rental income (revenu cadastral/kadastraal inkomen) attributed to the property, as indexed on 1 January of the relevant tax assessment year.

Additional provincial and municipal surcharges are levied on top of the (regional) immovable withholding tax, which may increase the effective tax rate to around 30% to 50% of the cadastral income, depending on the province and municipality where the real estate is located.

Belgian immovable ‘withholding’ tax is not refundable and cannot be credited against corporate tax. However, it is fully deductible as a business expense from a company’s taxable income.

Corporate income tax

For companies using or exploiting real estate, taxable income is determined on the basis of the accounting profit or loss realized.

The taxable income can be reduced by deducting the expenses associated with the real estate, such as the depreciation of buildings (depreciation of land is not possible), repairs, maintenance, renovation and similar costs, and interest on loans taken out to finance the acquisition of the real estate (with some limitations). In certain cases the company is also entitled to a deduction of an extra depreciation in the year of acquisition of a new building (investment tax deduction).

Corporate income tax , advance payments and withholding tax on income included in the tax base, are not deductible. This is also the case for interest on late payments, fines and any associated prosecution expenses.

Generally, taxes, fees and public service charges payable to the regions, as well as surcharges, penalties and other similar charges, are not deductible, but immovable withholding tax, registration duties on the transfer of the real estate and mortgage duties are tax deductible.

Capital gains from the sale of property (buildings as well as land) are subject to normal corporation tax. However, a system of deferred and spread taxation applies where the property sold was held for at least 5 years and the proceeds are entirely reinvested within three to five years in depreciable intangible or tangible fixed assets used for business purposes in Belgium or in any other member state of the European Economic Area (EEA). Losses related to real estate can be offset against other income. Tax losses may be carried forward indefinitely but their use in a given tax year is limited to €1 million plus 40% of the taxable basis in excess of €1 million. Any carried-forward tax losses that cannot be used due to this limitation may be further carried forward indefinitely.

Resident companies are subject to a standard corporate income tax rate of 25%. The first income band of €100,000 of small companies is subject to a lower rate of 20% (subject to certain conditions).

Local taxes

There are a number of local taxes imposed by the regions, provinces and communes that are linked to the real estate itself or to the use of the real estate.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Capital gains are generally taxable as profit at the rate of 10 percent.

Property tax is payable at the level of the canton. In the Canton of Sarajevo, for example, property tax is payable annually in amounts not smaller than:

    • KM 3 per square metre for a building or apartment intended for rest or recreation
    • KM 4 per square metre for business premises, and
    • KM 3 per square metre for garages

The Law on the Taxation of Real Estate in the Republic Srpska, which came into force on 1 January 2016 provides a tax rate on real estate of up to 0.2 percent of the market value of the asset and no tax in relation to the purchase of real estate is mentioned. Exceptionally, the tax rate for real estate where a productive activity is carried on is up to 0.10 percent.

Brazil

Brazil

Urban Property Tax (IPTU) and Rural Property Tax (ITR) are, respectively, local and federal taxes levied annually and respectively on urban and rural properties.

The IPTU may be reduced or offset depending on each municipality, for example, the exemption from payment for senior citizens subject to the Social Security National Institute (INSS) and the reduction on the percentage applicable to strategic commercial properties such as hotels.

Depending on the local or state government where the property is located, it may be subject to additional taxes regarding the property, such as public cleaning tax and fire department tax.

As far as ITR is concerned, the following scenarios are exempt from payment:

  • official agrarian reform program settlements (provided that all legal requirements for such exemption are met);
  • multiple rural properties owned by the same owner – provided that the area of land does not exceed the limits established by law – who explores such properties independently or with their family and who does not own any urban property; and
  • areas occupied by remnants of quilombola

There are no additional taxes for non-residents, occupiers of the property or specific types of property.

Canada

Canada

Income Tax

Income tax on rental income is levied by the Canadian federal government and all provincial governments. Canadian municipalities do not levy income tax. Rental income from a rental property is generally the profit from the property, subject to specific rules set out in the Income Tax Act (Canada) (the Act).

Canada generally taxes based on residence. A Canadian resident will be required to pay tax on rental income from a property whether the property is located in Canada or elsewhere. If the property is outside Canada, Canada will generally allow an offsetting foreign tax credit against Canadian taxes in respect of any foreign tax paid on the same income.

A non-resident of Canada typically will be required to pay Canadian withholding tax equal to 25% (unless an applicable bilateral income tax treaty, if any, provides a lower rate) of the gross amount of rental income from real estate situated in Canada. The withholding tax must be withheld from each rental payment and remitted to the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) for the non-resident’s account. In many cases the non-resident may, by filing an undertaking with the CRA, arrange to pay tax based on net rental income rather than under the withholding tax regime.

The combined rate of federal and provincial income tax on rental income will vary depending on the relevant province, and whether the taxpayer is an individual (including most trusts), corporation, or partnership.

Individuals pay tax at graduated rates. The top rate is approximately 50%, depending on the province.

Corporate tax rates average around 30%, again depending on the province. Certain private corporations will be subject to an additional 10.67% refundable tax on rental income, which is then refunded as the corporation pays certain taxable dividends to its shareholders.

Most trusts pay tax at the top individual rate. However, trusts can and frequently do reduce their income to nil annually by distributing all of their income to their beneficiaries, each of whom is then taxable on the beneficiary’s share of income at the rate applicable to the beneficiary.

Partnerships (including limited partnerships and limited liability partnerships) are not generally taxable, but are required to compute income at the partnership level as if the partnership were a person, and then allocate its income to its partners in accordance with their rights as partners. Each partner then pays tax on the partner’s share of the partnership’s income at the rate applicable to the partner.

Income tax is not a deductible expense. Commercial landlords often factor anticipated income tax cost into the rent charged in order to ensure an appropriate rate of return on their investment.

Property Tax

Canadian provinces levy annual property tax, typically as a percentage of assessed value. Property tax rates vary widely depending on the province, and the location and classification of the property. Property tax is generally payable by the owner of the property.

Property tax expense incurred in the course of earning income from a business or property is generally deductible for income tax purposes. Restrictions on deductibility may apply where the real property is acquired for resale or development.

“Speculation and Vacancy Tax” in British Columbia

British Columbia has enacted an annual “speculation and vacancy tax” on residential real estate in the Vancouver region and in certain other specified areas in British Columbia, subject to various exemptions, including property under construction or renovation and property occupied under a qualifying long-term tenancy.

The tax is levied on foreign owners annually at a rate of 0.5% of the property value in 2018, and 2% in 2019 and subsequent years (non-foreign owners will also be subject to the tax, but at lower rates). Foreign owners who report income in British Columbia may be able to offset a portion of the tax with a tax credit against British Columbia income tax (non-foreign owners may also be eligible for a tax credit under certain circumstances).

Municipal Vacancy Taxes

Separate from British Columbia’s speculation and vacancy tax, vacant residential property in the city of Vancouver (meaning property that has been unoccupaid for more than six months during the taxation year) will be subject to an empty homes tax of 3% on the property’s assessed taxable value for the year. This tax is also subject to certain exemptions such as the death of the ‎registered owner, development or major renovations, the registered owner is in care, occupancy is for ‎full-time employment, there is a transfer of the property, the property is subject to court order, or the ‎property is a limited use residential property. ‎

Similar vacancy taxes laws are in effect for in the City of Toronto, Ottawa and Hamilton, at a rate of 1%. The Peel Region is currently also contemplating a vacancy tax.

Underused Housing Tax

Beginning 1 January 2022, certain corporations and individuals (including non-Canadian individuals) are required to file an “underused housing tax return” for each directly or indirectly owned residential property, and to pay anunderused housing tax of 1% on such property if they are vacant or underused during the year.

A property will be exempt from this tax if:

  • it is the primary place of residence for an individual or their spouse or ‎common-law partner, or for a child who is attending a ‎designated learning institution; or
  • at least 180 days in the calendar year are included in one or more ‎”qualifying occupancy periods”(meaning at least one month in a calendar year during which a qualifying occupant, such as a tenant, a spouse with a Canadian work permit, or a spouse, parent or child that is a citizen or permanent resident of Canada has continuous occupancy of the residential property)

There are a number of “excluded owners” that are not subject to the underused housing tax, most notably Canadian citizens and permanent residents of Canada (unless such persons own the property in their capacity as trustees ‎‎of a trust or as partners in a partnership). A number of other exemptions ‎may also apply.

China

China

The following taxes are payable by the owner of real estate:

Real Estate Tax

Real Estate Tax (RET) is applied to the owners of real property at rates depending on how the property is used. RET replaced Urban Real Estate Tax as of 1 January 2009. Generally speaking, if the property is for lease, RET is calculated as 12% of the annual rental income. For self-used properties, RET is levied at a rate of 1.2% of the net value of the property (with a statutory deduction of between 10 and 30% of the original cost). The rate of this statutory deduction is determined by the local government and may vary from city to city.

Urban and Township Land Use Tax

Companies or individuals that occupy land within cities, counties, townships and mining areas are subject to an annual Urban and Township Land Use Tax calculated against the square metre size of the property. The rate of the tax is set at a local level and can vary from about RMB0.6 per square metre for a poorer town to RMB30 per square metre for a large city.

Colombia

Colombia

No text yet.

Croatia

Croatia

In the case of companies (including closed end real estate investment funds) capital gains are normally taxed as profit at the rate of 18% and in case of a company with less than HRK 3 mil annual income, 12% (since 1 January 2017) . Capital gains are treated in the same way as rental income and other income from real estate ownership. Tax is payable on rental and other income after the deduction of expenses (including interest, depreciation and administrative costs).

An individual's rental income from real estate in Croatia is subject to personal income tax at the rate of 15%. Tax is payable on rental income after deducting 30% to cover expenses. This deemed amount applies irrespective of the actual expenses incurred. If the individual is not a VAT payer (ie has no registered business that is subject to VAT), the income tax payable on rental income may be determined by the tax authority as a flat rate.

No other taxes apply to the ownership of real estate.

Czech Republic

Czech Republic

During the ownership of real estate there is a duty to pay a real estate tax consisting of two parts- tax on land and tax on buildings or units.

Tax on land is imposed on plots of land situated in the territory of the Czech Republic recorded in the Cadastral Register and is payable by the person who owns, rents or uses the real estate. Where there is more than one taxpayer, they pay the tax jointly and severally. The annual land tax rate applicable in built-up areas, which applies to courtyards and other areas, is CZK0.20 per square metre. For building plots, the tax rate is CZK2.00 per square metre. This basic tax rate is subject to multipliers ranging from 1.00 to 5.00 according to the number of inhabitants of the municipality.

The value is calculated by multiplying the area of the land in square metres by the value per square metre.

The tax rate for arable land, hop yards, vineyards, gardens and orchards is 0.75 percent of the value of the real estate. The tax rate for permanent pasture, commercial forests and ponds used for intensive fish farming is 0.25 percent of the value of the real estate.

Tax on building or units is imposed on buildings and units situated in the territory of the Czech Republic. The tax rate on houses is CZK2.00 per square metre, on garages it is CZK8.00 per square metre, on buildings used for business activities (ie buildings used for some types of agriculture, industry, construction, transportation or energy infrastructure) it is CZK10.00, and on flats and other self-contained non-residential premises CZK2.00. For houses, flats and non-residential premises the basic tax rate is subject to multipliers ranging from 1.00 to 5.00 according to the number of inhabitants of the municipality.

Denmark

Denmark

Property taxes are payable. Income on real estate, eg rental income is taxable on a net income basis.

Properties are subject to an annual land taxation levied by the municipality at a rate of up to between 3% of 80% of the land value (in Danish: Grundskyld), depending on their location. The land value is assessed every two years.

From 2024 the annual property tax of up to 3% will be applied on 80% of the land value assessment.

Land tax is deductible against taxable income from properties used for commercial activities.

Properties used for commercial activities (offices, shops, hotels, factories, workshops or any similar purpose) may be subject to an additional tax – municipal charge (Dækningsafgift) – levied by the municipal. The charge will be calculated based on 80% of the land value. It is for each municipal authority to determine whether to levy the municipal charge on properties used for commercial activities. The municipal charge may as a general rule be levied at a rate of up to 1% of 80% of the land value. In the period until 2028 the rate may be higher than 1% depending on the municipality. The additional municipal charge is levied primarily by municipalities near the major Danish cities. The object of the additional municipal charge is to contribute to the expenditure for roads, streets, parking spaces, fire service etc, inflicted by commercial properties on the municipality.

Income from the ownership of real estate in Denmark is taxable income. For corporate owners such income is taxed at the corporate tax rate of 22%. For individuals the income is taxable as ordinary income, however, special rules apply to individuals carrying on business activities, who may select a preliminary taxation similar corporation tax, until the income is made available for private spending.

France

France

Property tax (taxe foncière)

Provperty tax is payable for the whole calendar year by the owner of a property asset on 1 January of each calendar year. The tax base is equal to the net cadastral income (revenu net cadastral) which is obtained by applying to the local rental value (valeur locative cadastrale) (after updating and upgrading) a reduction of 50%. The amount of property tax is calculated by applying the rate of the tax set by each local authority to the cadastral income.

Housing tax (taxe d’habitation)

This tax is payable by the occupier of the property (as of 1 January) for property used as second housing or other furnished premises not used as the main housing (as from 1 January 2023). The tax does not apply to premises which are subject to local tax on business activities (with exceptions). The tax is calculated on the cadastral rental value of the dwelling and outbuildings.

[1] Under an exception for low tax income households

Tax on offices and premises for commercial, storage and car parking use (including for commercial use) in the Île-de-France and the PACA region (taxe sur les bureaux, les locaux commerciaux, les locaux de stockage et les surfaces de stationnement en Île-de-France et en région Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur)

This is payable (yearly as of 1 January) by the owner of premises used as offices or for commercial or storage purposes located in the Île-de-France (i.e. Paris and the surrounding areas) and, from 1 January 2023, in Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur:

The tax is calculated by multiplying the area of the premises by the applicable rate which varies according to where the premises are located in.

A reduced rate applies to premises owned by the State, regional authorities, professional organizations, non-profit associations or private bodies with a social, educational, cultural, sport – related or public health purpose.

Office premises development tax (Taxe pour création de bureaux en Ile-de-France)

There is a specific tax for development of office premises in Paris area whose rates vary from €0 to €455.675 per square metre depending on the district the office is located in. This tax has to be paid by the owner of the premises. It is not allowed as a deduction in computing rental income because it is deemed to be part of the acquisition cost of the land (neither deductible nor depreciable).

Tax on unoccupied premises (Taxe sur les logements vacants)

This is payable by the owner of any premises that have been unoccupied for at least one year (as of 1 January). It only applies to premises located in certain areas.

The tax is calculated on the basis of the rental value of the premises at the rate of 17% in the first year and 34% thereafter.

Local development tax (Taxe locale d’aménagement)

This is payable in relation to building, rebuilding or extension projects for all types of premises. The tax is calculated by multiplying the taxable value of the construction surface and the rate set by the local authority. The rate is between 1% and 5% (up to 20% in specific areas for the municipal part).

Property tax at 3% (Taxe annuelle de 3% sur les immeubles)

An annual tax of 3% of the market value of the property owned in France, directly or indirectly, is payable by entities (whether or not they are resident in France and whether or not the entity has a legal personality). The tax is based on the market value of real estate property assets and rights held in France (eg separate property rights such as usufruct or bare ownership).

Are exempt from tax under certain conditions:

  • Sovereign states, public bodies and entities with or without legal personality held for more than 50% by a sovereign State or a public body
  • Entities where the stocks are admitted to negotiation on a regulated market and are regularly and significantly traded (included their wholly owned subsidiaries).
  • Companies which do not qualify as French real estate companies (i.e. companies where the value of French real estate assets represent less than 50% of their total French assets).

The following organizations, that have their headquarters in France, in the European Union or in a country which has concluded a tax treaty or a treaty of reciprocal taxation with France, are exempt from tax under certain conditions:

  • Pension funds and other non-profit organisations
  • Investment funds and companies such asSPPICAVs, REITs
  • Entities that undertake to disclose certain information regarding their ultimate investors and the real estate asset to the French tax authorities (filing obligations are to be complied with)
  • Companies whose stake in the underlying French real estate asset is valued at less than €100,000or 5% of the market value of the asset

[1] Under an exception for low tax income households

Germany

Germany

Real estate tax (Grundsteuer) is currently charged by municipalities on the rateable value (Einheitswert) on an annual basis, as assessed by the fiscal authorities, who take into consideration factors such as the type of building, its age and use. The rateable value is usually below the market value. Tax is payable annually by the beneficial owner.

Each municipality can determine its own multiplier for the purposes of real estate tax. The average tax rate in West German states is 1.3% of the rateable value and in East German states (including the eastern parts of the city of Berlin) it is 1%.

Real estate tax has been recently reformed and will come into force as of 1 January 2025. While most of the states follow the federal model of real estate reform, Bavaria, Baden-Wurttemberg, Hamburg, Hesse and Niedersachsen have drafted their own real estate tax laws which lead to different regulations in these states.

Each owner of real estate in Germany had to file a real estate assessment in order to inform the tax authorities of the current buildings on their properties by 31 January 2023. German land owner will receive new assessment notices The amended real estate tax rules may lead to a higher tax burden on some real estate owners while decreasing it for others.

Further, municipalities will be able to set a higher assessment rate for plots of land that are ready for building but undeveloped, if no development takes place on them. This so-called real estate tax C thus makes speculation more expensive and creates financial incentives to actually create housing on land that is ready for construction.

Going forward, an assessment date for real estate tax purposes will be every seven years for which the owners of real estate have to declare their current information of their property to the tax authorities.

With the new regulations it is also mandatory to file real estate returns with the tax authorities if the actual status of the property changes within a year. A change of the actual status can be the completion of a building on a property, the demolition of a building on a property, a renovation or extension of a building and much more. The return has to be filed within one month after the end of the calendar year in which the change of the actual status of the property has taken place. Depending on the state the obligation and deadline may vary.

Real estate tax for business properties is deductible as an expense for corporate income tax and trade tax purposes.

Hong Kong, SAR

Hong Kong, SAR

Government Rent

Government rent is levied on property owners regardless of whether or not the property is occupied. This cannot be offset in any way and generally speaking, it is calculated at around 3% of the rateable value of the property. The rateable value of the property is a government assessed value used for official purposes including local taxation.

Rates

Rates are a form of local taxation payable on a quarterly basis in advance. The amount payable however is determined by the Legislative Council each year and varies accordingly. For the Financial Year 2023-2024, the rates percentage charge is 5%. The payment of rates can be set off against amount of property tax payable as described below.

Property Tax

If the property is to be let and rent is collected then property tax is payable. The exact amount payable is calculated at a percentage of the Net Assessable Value. This percentage has been set at 15% from 2008/09 onwards. The Net Assessable Value is calculated by taking the annual rental income less irrecoverable rent, municipal taxation (rates) paid by the owner(s) and a 20% statutory allowance for repairs and outgoings.

Profits Tax

The profits generated from a business carried out by a property owner in Hong Kong (including a business of letting real properties) will likely be subject to profits tax.

However, if the rental income from property chargeable to property tax is included in the profits for profits tax purposes as mentioned above, or if the property owner occupies the property for producing chargeable profits, the amount of property tax paid will be set off against the amount of profits tax payable. This may result in greater deductions in the amounts payable as allowances with respect to repairs and maintenance to the property; interest paid in respect of the cost of acquiring the property (subject to anti-avoidance provisions) and the costs of maintaining the corporation are permitted.

Hungary

Hungary

Building tax is payable on the ownership of buildings. The taxpayer is the person who owns the building on 1 January of each tax year. Local authorities determine the level of taxation.

The maximum rate of building tax per annum is:

  • HUF1,1001 per square metre, or
  • 3.6% of the adjusted market value of the building

Vacant plots of land situated in inner-city areas may also be subject to tax, depending on the local authority.

The maximum rate of tax per annum is:

  • HUF2002 per square metre, or
  • 3% of the adjusted market value of the plot

The adjusted market value for buildings and vacant plots is 50% of the actual market value.

[1]  May be indexed by local authorities.

[2]  May be indexed by local authorities.
Ireland

Ireland

Rental profits are subject to corporation tax at the rate of 25% where the property is held by an Irish resident company or a non‑Irish resident company carrying on a trade in Ireland through a branch or agency. In computing rental profits deductions are allowed for:

  • Repairs
  • Insurance
  • Management costs
  • The cost of services rendered or goods provided where legally bound under the lease to render or provide and no separate consideration received
  • Rent
  • Local authority taxes
  • Interest expenses incurred on the purchase, improvement or repair of the property

From 1 January 2019 the deduction available for interest on borrowings used by a landlord to fund the purchase, improvement or repair of a residential property increased from 85% to 100%.

Previously deductions could not be made for expenditure incurred before the first letting of the property. However, from 1 January 2018, a deduction for ‘pre-letting’ expenses of a revenue nature (for example, routine repairs and maintenance costs) is allowable when incurred on residential property which has been vacant for a period of 12 months or more (such expenses incurred before the first letting of the property would not currently be considered deductible). The relief will be subject to a cap of €5,000 per property and will be available for qualifying expenditure incurred up to the end of 2021. Deductions should be possible for expenditure incurred between lettings. Where interest costs are incurred by a company prior to the first letting these may be added to the base cost of the property in calculating a gain or loss on disposal where the costs have been capitalized by the company in its accounts.

Depending on the use to which the property is put and the trade, if any, carried on in the property capital allowances in the form of industrial buildings allowances may be available. An "industrial building or structure" is broadly defined and includes buildings and structures used for a great variety of commercial purposes.

There have been many capital allowances schemes in existence in Ireland over the past 30 years, for example, hotel capital allowance schemes, schemes for the provision of student accommodation, urban renewal relief schemes, rural renewal relief schemes and rented residential accommodation schemes. Most of these schemes have now been abolished or are currently being phased out.

Capital allowances may continue to be available on expenditure incurred on the acquisition of a property on which capital allowances have been claimed where the tax life of the property has not yet expired. A full review of the capital allowances position of a property should be conducted prior to its acquisition.

If the property is let with fixtures and fittings and the landlord bears the burden of the wear and tear of such fixtures and fittings, capital allowances should be available.

Rental profits may be taxed at the rate of 20% where the property is held by a non‑Irish resident company that is not carrying on a trade in Ireland through a branch or agency.

Capital gains tax is payable on the disposal of Irish real estate whether held through a company or by an individual and whether the owner of the property is resident in Ireland or elsewhere. The current rate of capital gains tax is 33%. However, there is a relief from capital gains tax for real estate purchased from 7 December 2011 to 31 December 2014 provided it is held for a specified period. The original holding period was seven years. There was proportionate relief where the property was held for any period longer than seven years, with the relief being lost in its entirety if the property was sold during the initial seven-year acquisition period.

The requisite holding period has been reduced from seven years to four years. The measure has created a three year period (ie years 4 to 7) in which the property can be sold and benefit from a full exemption whereas if held longer than seven years, only proportionate relief is available.

In order for the relief to apply, the property must be acquired for a consideration equal to the market value of the property (or if acquired from a relative, not less than 75% of the market value on the date acquired). This exemption applies to all persons regardless of how the real estate is acquired, ie individual or corporate. The relief does not extend to the disposal of shares in a company which derives its value or the greater part of its value from Irish real estate.

A "household charge" of €100 was introduced for owners of residential property in 2012. This charge was payable to the relevant local authority. The charge was abolished on 1 January 2013 and has been replaced with a Local Property Tax (LPT).

The LPT, which came into effect from 1 July 2013, is a yearly tax payable on the market value of residential property. The LPT is administered by the Revenue Commissioners. It is a self-assessed tax and the property owner must determine the market value of the property. The valuation date used to determine the market value of a property is 1 May 2013 and forms the basis for calculating the LPT for a four-year period from 2013 until 2016. The revised valuation date of 1 November 2016 has been postponed until 1 November 2019, therefore the LPT will continue to be based on the original valuation that applied in 2013.

Certain types of property are exempt from the LPT. New or second‑hand properties purchased by a buyer between 1 January and 31 December 2013 provided the property is occupied as the buyer’s sole or main residence, and new and unused properties purchased from a builder or developer between 1 January 2013 and 31 October 2019 will be exempt until the end of 2019. Other types of property which are exempt include residential nursing homes, diplomatic properties, properties that are fully subject to local taxation of commercial property, properties in certain unfinished housing estates and certain properties used by charitable bodies.

For the purposes of calculating the LPT, property values are organized into market value bands. The lowest band is €0 to €100,000. Higher bands are organized in increments of €50,000 up to €1,000,000. The tax liability is calculated by applying the tax rate to the midpoint of the band. The rate of LPT is 0.18% for properties up to a market value of €1 million. For example, a property valued at €230,000 falls into the €200,000 to €250,000 band, the midpoint of which is €225,000. Therefore, the tax is €405 for a full year (0.18% x €225,000). Local authorities have the authority to amend the rate of LPT and a number have lowered the rate for 2015 and subsequent years.

Residential properties valued over €1 million are assessed at their actual market value at a rate of 0.18% on the first €1 million in value and 0.25% on the portion of the value above €1 million (banding does not apply).

Italy

Italy

Investment via an Italian corporate vehicle

If the real estate is leased to tenants, the rental income generated is subject to corporate tax (IRES) at the rate of 24% and regional tax (IRAP) ordinarily levied at the rate of 3.9% although the effective tax rate depends upon the Italian region in which the company is located and upon the activity carried out by the company.

Taxable income for IRES purposes is the net revenue after the deduction of costs, as shown in the annual profit and loss account. With some minor exceptions, all costs relating to the activities of a company can be deducted, including interest (as long as this exceeds interest receivable), up to an amount equal to 30% of “fiscal” EBITDA not including depreciation and financial lease payments (ie EBITDA net of depreciation and financial lease payments, computed considering only taxable and deductible items).

Property tax (IMU) paid on commercial property (as from FY 2022), 10% of IRAP paid and IRAP due on the cost of employees are deductible for the purposes of IRES  Depreciation of property is deductible to the extent allowed by law (ordinary depreciation rate for real estate properties is 3%, retails units can be depreciated up to 6% for the period 2023–7). In certain circumstances, taxable income can be mitigated for IRES purposes by using appropriate leverage. In particular, interest due on loans which are secured by mortgages over real estate for ‘letting’ is not subject to the 30% EBITDA threshold under certain conditions and is therefore fully deductible.

The income subject to IRAP is the amount of revenue after the deduction of costs, as shown in the annual profit and loss account. However, not all costs related to the company's activities can be deducted, including interest payments, in certain circumstances the cost of employees, IMU and IRES payments.

IMU (property tax) is a wealth tax related to the possession of real estate and is calculated on the basis of the cadastral income of the property (rendita catastale) which is set by the competent local tax authority in whose jurisdiction the property is located, on the basis of certain legally established parameters.

IMU is levied on the cadastral value of the property (valore catastale), that is obtained by applying a multiplier to the rendita catastale (which is recorded in the Cadastral Register and thus is publicly available). Due to the fact that the cadastral income registered in the Cadastral Register is often much lower than the market value, multiplying factors are applied, in order to bring the tax payable more in line with the current market values of properties.

As far as the tax rate is concerned, each municipality is authorized to set the IMU tax bracket within a range from 0.76% to 1.06%. The IMU tax due annually is the result of applying the relevant rate within that range to the cadastral value of the property.

Investment via an Italian partnership

An Italian partnership is a transparent entity for tax purposes. Consequently, income deriving from investments is taxed at the level of individual partners, even if this is not distributed as dividends.

Interests are 100% deductible for the purposes of computing the partnership taxable income to be transferred and taxed at the level of the partner (they are not subject to the 30% EBITDA threshold limitation). 10% of IRAP and IRAP due on the cost of employees is deductible from the partnership taxable income, while IMU is not deductible.

In the case of non-resident partners, the income is taxed as business income at the level of the partner at the rate of 24%.

Regional tax (IRAP) at the rate of 3.9% applies at the level of the partnership. The income and allowable deductions for the purposes of IRAP are the same as for corporate vehicles.

IMU applies to partnerships in the same way as it does to corporate vehicles.

Investment without a permanent establishment in Italy

In the case of investment by a foreign company without a permanent establishment in Italy (please note that, in contrast to the position in some countries, owning Italian real estate does not automatically give rise to a permanent establishment in Italy), the income derived from letting property is subject to corporation tax (IRES) payable at the rate 24%. 95% of the gross income derived from letting is taxable and no depreciation or other costs can be deducted. Interest on loans secured on the property is not deductible for tax purposes.

Investors without a permanent establishment in Italy are subject to IMU in the same way as Italian entities.

Investment via a real estate investment fund

Real estate investment funds are not subject to IRES or IRAP while for VAT their transactions are subject to VAT whose fulfilments are accomplished by the management company (SGR). IMU is payable by real estate investment funds.

Investment via a listed real estate investment company (SIIQ)

Listed real estate investment companies (SIIQs) are not subject to corporate income taxes (IRES and IRAP) on income from letting property, or on the dividends paid by another SIIQ, if those dividends are related to letting property.

Other income generated by a SIIQ is subject to IRES and IRAP.

IMU also applies to SIIQs.

Japan

Japan

The fixed assets tax (kotei shisan zei) and the city planning tax (toshi keikaku zei) are imposed on the person or entity that is registered as the owner of the property as of 1 January of each year (city planning tax is imposed only on real property in certain urban districts).  The tax rate for fixed assets tax is 1.4%, and the city planning tax is 0.3%.  The tax base is generally the value of the real estate listed on the official ledger, while adjustment measures to reduce the original tax base in case a rapid value increases are applicable to land located in the Tokyo, Osaka or Nagoya metropolitan areas.

Netherlands

Netherlands

General

Municipalities levy property tax on the basis of the value for the purposes of the Value of Immovable Properties Act. The exact rate differs per municipality and on the type of real estate.

Companies

Please refer to the Taxation of income question.

Individuals

Until 2025, Dutch Personal Income Tax (PIT) is payable on the basis of a deemed return on Dutch real estate held as passive investment (so called Box-III income). This deemed return is calculated on the actual value of the real estate owned (minus any debt in respect of such real estate) on 1 January of each calendar year. The percentage of the deemed return is 6.17% for the (2023 figures) and 6.,04% for the 2024 figures. Actual income (such as rental income), actual capital gains and actual expenses with respect to the Dutch real estate are disregarded for the purposes of calculating Box-III income. As per 1 January 2026, a new Box-III system is expected to be introduced in which the actual return on Dutch real estate held as a passive investment will be taxed.

The Box-III income is taxed at a fixed rate of 36%. A general threshold exemption of €57.000 (2024 figures) applies for each taxpayer.

New Zealand

New Zealand

To the extent the real estate asset is not income generating (ie does not earn rental income), no recurring taxes should be payable by the owner.

If real estate is used to make taxable supplies (eg as part of a commercial leasing business), and is not used for the supply of residential accommodation (ie not used as a dwelling), GST will be payable on the lease income (ie rental income) on a recurring basis.

Nigeria

Nigeria

The recurring taxes outside the transfer costs that are payable by an owner of real estate are the annual charges for land use which includes ground rents, tenement rates and such other levies for development and business premises which the government authorities impose on owners and occupiers of real property. The rates are uniformly imposed on properties depending on locations and the nature of the building developments.

The Taxes and Levies (Approved List for Collection) Act 1998, provides for state governments to charge and collect business premises registration fee and development levy, annually from property owners. Also, the Personal Income Tax Act and the Companies Income Tax Act, provides that rental payable to the owner of a property is subject to Withholding tax and imposes an obligation on the person paying rent to withhold 10% for remittance to the tax authority and collect a tax credit note in favour of the owner of the property to offset its tax liability at the end of the tax year. Please note that withholding tax is not charged on rental income or dividends due to a real estate investment company.

Norway

Norway

Property tax may be imposed by the municipal council. This will in general be at a rate of between 0.1% and 0.7% of the taxable value, normally calculated somewhat lower than the market value.

The owner of real estate (and associated chattels) located in Norway (whether Norwegian or foreign) is subject to annual net wealth tax on the value of the real estate (and the chattels) at a maximum rate of 1.1%. There is a basic tax-free allowance for wealth under NOK1.7 million per person. Companies are not subject to wealth tax.

Poland

Poland

Land, buildings and construction works associated with a business (eg roads, antenna towers or foundations for machinery), as well as their component parts, are as a rule subject to real estate tax. The basis for calculation of real estate tax is the surface area of the land or building. For construction used for business purposes, real estate tax is charged on their initial value determined for tax depreciation purposes in a given tax year. Generally speaking, expenditure incurred in relation to the creation or acquisition of a development is the measure of its initial value.

Real estate tax is a local tax and its exact amount is set by a resolution of the relevant Community Council (a local self-governing body). However, rates of real estate tax laid down in the Community Council's resolution may not exceed the following rates: for land connected with business activities – PLN 1.34 per square metre; for buildings and parts of buildings (where they are used for business purposes) – PLN  33.10 per square metre; for construction – 2% of their market value (the maximum rates are updated annually). Some types of real estate are exempt from this tax (for example, certain property connected with railways or airport infrastructure).

In some circumstances, real estate located in special economic zones may benefit from real estate tax-exemption.

Real estate tax is declared annually by corporations and paid to the relevant community on a monthly basis.

Individuals not carrying on a business activity pay real estate tax on the basis of on the competent authority' decision quarterly.

Special rules apply to agricultural land and forests.

Portugal

Portugal

IMI is a municipal property tax, payable by the owner or occupier of the property (excluding tenants), on the VPT (value of the real estate assessed by the tax authority) of urban and rural properties.

IMI is payable on the VPT of each property at rates which range between 0.3% and 0.8%, depending on the municipality and on the type of property.

Urban properties solely for the residential use of the buyer, as his primary domicile, may benefit from a temporary exemption from IMI for up to three years, if the property’s value (for tax purposes) does not exceed €125,000. To benefit of this exemption, the income of the buyer’s household cannot exceed €153,300.

IMI exemptions are also possible in the case of projects of economic importance, or buildings classified as of national, public or municipal interest.

These deals may also be exempt from IMI or may benefit from tax reliefs in the following cases, among others:

  • Urban property subject of urban regeneration may benefit from IMI exemption during a period of three years, renewable for a period of five years, counted from the date of the completion of the restoration works.
  • In some cases, municipalities may determine a reduction of up to 25% of the IMI rate, applicable to urban property with energy efficiency.
  • Rural property composed by forest areas covered by forest intervention zone or acquired for forestry exploitation under a forest management plan.
  • Under the Investment Promotion Tax Regime (RFAI), companies may benefit from exemption or relief of IMI for a certain period (up to 10 years), provided that some conditions are met.

IMI is borne by the owners of property and it is collected by the municipalities according to the valuation of the property determined by the tax authorities.

The Portuguese State Budget for 2017 introduced the Additional to the IMI (AIMI). The AIMI is levied on the sum of the VPT’s of all dwellings owned or in relation to which the taxpayer has the right of use or the surface right.

In the case of individuals, €600,000 should be deducted from the sum of the VPT of all dwellings, being the AIMI levied on the residual value at a rate of 0.7% where the taxable value is less than €1 million, and of 1% marginal rate if and where higher. A marginal rate of 1.5% is applied when the taxable value is above €2 million.

In the case of companies, no deduction is to be applied, and the AIMI should be levied at a rate of 0.4%.

The value of real estate assets held by companies that are allocated to the personal use of equity holders, members of company bodies, or their spouses, ascendants and descendants is subject to a rate of 0.7%, where the taxable value is less than €1 million, a 1% marginal rate if higher than €1 million and less than €2 million and a marginal rate of 1.5% if higher than €2 million.

Urban property classified as “commercial”, “industrial” or “for services” and “others” are excluded from AIMI.

For dwellings owned by an entity established in a country, territory or region with a preferential tax regime the AIMI rate is 7.5%.

Dwellings covered by an exemption on IMI are also not subject to AIMI.

Romania

Romania

Building tax

For corporate entities the annual rate of building tax is set by the local council and should in principle be between 0.08 percent and 0.2 percent for residential buildings and between 0.2 percent and 1.3 percent for non-residential ones. These rates can be amended each year by the local councils.

In the case of buildings which have not been re-valued in the three years prior to the relevant fiscal year, the building tax is 5 percent.

The value on which the tax is levied is the acquisition value, the final value of construction works or the value established through a valuation report prepared by an authorised expert, as the case may be.

There are relatively few exemptions from building tax. Local authorities are allowed to grant tax exemptions to companies based on certain conditions set forth by each local authority.

New rules are expected to entry into force as of 1 January 2025 on the way the building tax is computed for owned real estate properties.

Land tax

Land tax is calculated in accordance with a formula that takes into account the number of square metres, the ranking of the town/village where the land is situated, the area within the locality and the purpose for which the land is used. Instead of a percentage tax rate, the Romanian Fiscal Code uses a fixed 'basis amount' of tax per hectare, which is updated annually. The land within a city is divided into four areas (A-D) depending on their location. For example, the tax per hectare for building land type A – the central areas of Bucharest, is between RON 8,282 and RON 20,706.

As with building tax, local authorities are allowed to grant tax exemptions for companies based on certain conditions set forth by each local authority.

Slovak Republic

Slovak Republic

Real estate tax consists of taxes on land, buildings, flats and non-residential premises. The tax on land is imposed on plots recorded in the real estate cadastre and is payable (subject to certain statutory conditions) by the person who owns, uses or rents the property.

The annual tax rate for land is 0.25% of the land value. This can be varied by the tax administration authority (ie the relevant municipality).

The basis for tax on arable land, hop yards, vineyards, meadows, pastures and orchards is the land value. This is defined as the size in square metres multiplied by the value per square metre. This is also the basis for calculating tax on commercial forests and ponds used for fish farming, as well as for gardens, built-up areas, courtyards and other grounds.

The building tax rate is €0.033 per each even initiated square metre of built-up area.

The annual tax rate on buildings can be increased or decreased by the relevant tax administration authority. They can also levy a supplement for every floor situated above first floor level, although the maximum amount of the supplement shall not exceed €0.33 per each additional floor except for the first floor.

The tax administration authority sets different annual tax rates for particular types of buildings. The maximum annual tax rate on any class of building is 10 times the lowest annual tax rate on buildings set by the tax administration authority.

The annual tax rate on flats and non-residential premises is €0.033 per each even initiated square metre of the floor area of the flat or non-residential premises. This can be varied by the appropriate tax administration authority. The maximum annual tax rate on flats and non-residential premises is 10 times the lowest annual tax rate on flats and non-residential premises set by the tax administration authority.

Rates in the Slovak Republic vary according to the type of land and its locality. Bratislava, for example, has generally the highest rates of taxation per square metre.

Spain

Spain

Owners of real estate must pay real estate tax (Impuesto de Bienes Inmuebles). This is a local tax payable by owners of real estate and the holders of certain other property rights. Real estate tax is calculated on the basis of the cadastral value (valor catastral). This is set by the municipality in which the property is located on the basis of certain criteria established by law. The tax is calculated by applying a certain multiplier to the cadastral value as recorded in the cadastral register. This tax cannot be reduced or offset in any way.

A special tax on real estate owned by non-resident entities applies in Spain. Non-resident entities resident in a tax haven owning real estate or rights over property are subject to a special tax of 3% of the cadastral value (valor catastral) which accrues at 31 December each year. In the case of transfers of real property situated in Spanish territory by entities subject to the special tax, the assets transferred will be subject to the payment of this special tax.

This special tax is not payable provided that the real estate properties are continuously or habitually linked to a business activity in Spain other than the mere holding or leasing of the properties.

Sweden

Sweden

For corporations, rental income and other business income are taxed at a rate of currently 20.6% (2023) and property tax is also payable.

A partnership is transparent for income tax purposes. Taxable income is calculated in the same way as for an incorporated company. Corporate partners are taxed at a rate of 20.6% (2023) and individuals at a progressive rate of between 47% and 65%. Property tax is also payable.

Thailand

Thailand

House and Land Tax and Local Development Tax were cancelled and replaced by Land and Building Tax under the Land and Building Act B.E. 2562 (2018) (the Act) which is published in the government gazette and is effective on 13 March 2019. However, the tax collection for land and building under the Act will be effective from 1 January 2020 onwards.

Under the Act, the properties which are subject to Land and Building Tax are (a) land, (b) building, and (c) condominium unit. Tax payer will be (a) the owner of those properties (if land, building, or condominium unit belongs to an individual/organization/company ), or (b) the possessor or the user of those properties (if land, building, or condominium unit belongs to the State), as the case may be. The calculation of Land and Building is based on the appraisal price of each property which is in accordance with the appraisal price of the property for collection of the government registration fee under Land Code. Regarding the tax rate, the Act specifies the different tax rate ceiling which depends on the purpose of utilization as follows:

  • Agricultural purpose: Tax rate will be no more than 0.15%;
  • Residential purpose: Tax rate will be no more than 0.3%;
  • Other purposes (e.g. commercial or industrial purposes): Tax rate will be no more than 1.2%; and
  • Land or building which is vacant or un-utilised: Tax rate will be no more than 1.2%.
United Arab Emirates - Abu Dhabi

United Arab Emirates - Abu Dhabi

None.

United Arab Emirates - Dubai

United Arab Emirates - Dubai

None, unless the property is being used for holiday/short term lettings.

Properties being leased out as holiday homes (ie on a short term basis) attract payment of the ‘Tourism Dirham’ pursuant to Executive Council Decision No.2/2014. This is payable to the Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing. The current charge that arises per night is AED15 for a property classified as a ‘luxury vacation home’ and AED10 for a property classified as a ‘touristic vacation home’.

UK - England and Wales UK - England and Wales

UK - England and Wales

The tax position will depend upon the type of entity that holds the English or Welsh real estate and whether the real estate is held as an investment or for the purposes of a trade. The following can be noted in relation to certain types of vehicles holding UK real estate as an investment.

Partnerships, “bare” trusts and non-UK unit trusts

If the property is held in a limited partnership, a limited liability partnership or a “bare” trust (that is a trust in its simplest form), the entity will normally be treated as transparent for UK tax purposes and so the partners or members or beneficiaries of the trust (as applicable) will be directly subject to UK tax on income arising from the property. A non-UK unit trust is normally structured so that income is treated as accruing directly to the unit holders and not to the trustees of the unit trust in which event the unit holders will also be taxed directly on any income arising.

Different taxes will apply depending on the circumstances of the individual partners, members, beneficiaries or units holders (as the case may be); for example relevant circumstances include:

  • Whether they are UK resident
  • Whether they are corporate entities or individuals
  • What kind of activities are carried on by the relevant entity

Non-UK companies

Non-UK tax resident companies are subject to UK corporation tax on profits and gains made from the ownership of UK real estate in the same way as UK companies (see below).

UK companies

If the property is held by a UK tax resident company, the company will be subject to UK corporation tax on any income or gains from the property at a current rate of 25%, (a lower rate applies to companies with profits of less than £250,000).

Tax deductions and other tax reliefs

Generally, a tax deduction can be claimed for any costs or expenses that are “wholly and exclusively” incurred in connection with a UK property letting business. Subject to UK transfer pricing rules and other anti-avoidance principles, deductions may be available for interest costs on borrowings to fund the purchase of property in England and Wales.

To reduce or offset taxable income, any person liable to UK tax on the ownership of real estate in England or Wales may also be able to claim a depreciation allowance or capital investment relief on certain types of building and on certain types of plant and machinery which are installed within buildings. In the UK, this is known as a “capital allowance”.

Depending on the type of expenditure incurred and on the taxpayer, capital allowances may either allow depreciation to be claimed via an annual writing-down allowance of a certain percentage of the cost of a capital item.or for relief  to be claimed on the full cost of an item in the year of acquisition (colloquially known as ‘full expensing’).

Capital allowances rules are complex, but the following general comments should be noted:

  • 'Structures and Buildings Allowances' are available for costs incurred on the construction of new commercial property, and on new conversions or renovations. An allowance is available at a flat rate of 3% of the qualifying expenditure per annum.
  • In relation to plant and machinery (such as manufacturing equipment and certain IT equipment), an annual allowance of 18% can be claimed on the cost of the asset, on a reducing balance basis. This is reduced to 6% in the case of certain classes of plant and machinery which are integral to the building (such as electrical systems and water heating systems). Subject to certain conditions, a company (including a company carrying on a business as a partner in a partnership) may be entitled to an immediate corporation tax deduction of:
    • 100% of the costs that would otherwise be eligible for the 18% annual allowance; and
    • 50% of the costs that would otherwise be eligible for the 6% annual allowance.

Among the conditions for these higher rates of allowances are that the plant and machinery must be unused and not second-hand and must not be provided for leasing. Plant and machinery in let real estate may therefore be  excluded from these higher allowances unless its  qualifies  as ‘background plant or machinery’.  

  • Additionally, for both incorporated and unincorporated taxpayers, an annual investment allowance is available for the first £1 million of expenditure on plant and machinery which allows an immediate deduction of 100% of the cost of the item in the year in which the expenditure is incurred.
  • If someone buys a second-hand building including plant and machinery, a claim can (subject to complying with certain requirements) be made on the basis of either the amount of allowance which could have been claimed by former owners, or the amount paid for the plant and machinery, whichever is smaller.

The value of land cannot be depreciated for tax purposes.

UK - Scotland

UK - Scotland

The tax position will depend upon the type of entity that holds the Scottish real estate and whether the real estate is held as an investment or for the purposes of a trade. The following can be noted in relation to certain types of vehicles holding UK real estate as an investment.

Partnerships, 'bare' trusts and non‑UK unit trusts

If the property is held in a limited partnership, a limited liability partnership or a 'bare' trust (that is a trust in its simplest form), the entity will normally be treated as transparent for UK tax purposes and so the partners or members or beneficiaries of the trust (as applicable) will be directly subject to UK tax on income arising from the property. A non‑UK unit trust is normally structured so that income is treated as accruing directly to the unit holders and not to the trustees of the unit trust in which event the unit holders will also be taxed directly on any income arising.

Different taxes will apply depending on the circumstances of the individual partners, members, beneficiaries or units holders (as the case may be); for example relevant circumstances include:

  • Whether they are UK resident
  • Whether they are corporate entities or individuals
  • What kind of activities are carried on by the relevant entity

Non‑UK companies

Non-UK tax resident companies are subject to UK corporation tax on profits and gains made from the ownership of UK real estate in the same way as UK companies (see below).

UK companies

If the property is held by a UK tax resident company the company will be subject to UK corporation tax on any income or gains from the property at a current rate of 25% from 1 April 2023 (a lower rate applies to companies with profits of less than £250,000).

Tax deductions and other tax reliefs

Generally, a tax deduction can be claimed for any costs or expenses that are 'wholly and exclusively' incurred in connection with a UK property letting business. Subject to UK transfer pricing rules and other anti‑avoidance principles, deductions may be available for interest costs on borrowings to fund the purchase of property in Scotland.

To reduce or offset taxable income, any person liable to UK tax on the ownership of real estate in Scotland may also be able to claim a depreciation allowance on certain types of building and on certain types of plant and machinery which are installed within buildings. In the UK, this is known as a 'capital allowance'.

Depending on the type of expenditure incurred and on the taxpayer, capital allowances may either allow for depreciation to be claimed via an annual writing-down allowance of a certain percentage of the cost of a capital item or for relief to be claimed on the full cost of an item in the year of acquisition (colloquially known as ‘full expensing’)

Capital allowances rules are complex, but the following general comments should be noted:

  • 'Structures and Buildings Allowances' are available for costs incurred on the construction of new commercial property, and on new conversions or renovations. An allowance is available at a flat rate of 3% of the qualifying expenditure per annum.
  • In relation to plant and machinery (such as manufacturing equipment and certain IT equipment), an annual allowance of 18% can be claimed on the cost of the asset, on a reducing balance basis. This is reduced to 6% in the case of certain classes of plant and machinery which are integral to the building (such as electrical systems and water heating systems). Subject to certain conditions, a company (including a company carrying on a business as a partner in a partnership) may be entitled to an immediate corporation tax deduction of:
    • 100% of the costs that would otherwise be eligible for the 18% allowance; and
    • 50% of the costs that would otherwise be eligible for the 6% allowance.

    Among the conditions for these higher rates of allowances are that the plant and machinery must be unused and not second-hand and must not be provided for leasing. Plant and machinery in let real estate may therefore be excluded from these higher allowances unless it qualifies as ‘background plant and machinery’.

    • Additionally, for both incorporated and unincorporated taxpayers, an annual investment allowance is available for the first £1 million of expenditure on plant and machinery which allows an immediate deduction of 100% of the cost of the item in the year in which the expenditure is incurred.
    • If someone buys a second‑hand building including plant and machinery, a claim can (subject to complying with certain requirements) be made on the basis of either the amount of allowance which could have been claimed by former owners, or the amount paid for the plant and machinery, whichever is smaller.

    The value of land cannot be depreciated for tax purposes.

United States

United States

The tax system in the US is a complex web of various taxes imposed by different governmental authorities. The multi-layered tax system reflects the US constitutional structure of overlapping federal and state governments, with the result that taxes may be imposed at any one or more of the following levels:

  • US federal taxes
  • State taxes
  • Local (city and/or county) taxes

While US federal taxes apply uniformly throughout the country, state and local taxes vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.

US federal income taxes

Generally

Taxable net income (ie the excess of income over deductions) derived from the ownership and operation of real property is treated as ordinary income and is subject to federal income tax at graduated rates. Effective January 2018, the maximum income tax rate on ordinary income has been reduced to 21 percent for corporations and 37 percent for individuals (note, however, the maximum income tax rate on ordinary income for individuals is set to sunset after 2025 and return to 39.6 percent). In addition, individual taxpayers holding interests in ‘pass-through entities’ such as partnerships and limited liability companies may be entitled to a deduction of up to 20 percent of ‘qualified business income’, subject to certain restrictions, income limitations, and exclusions. As of 2013, US individuals, estates and trusts are potentially subject to an additional tax known as the Net Investment Income Tax (NIIT), which applies at a rate of 3.8 percent on the lesser of net investment income (including, amongst other items, gain from the sale of investment real estate) or the amount by which modified adjusted gross income exceeds a statutory threshold (ranging from US$125,000 – US$250,000 depending on filing status); non-resident aliens, however, are not subject to the NIIT.

Disregarded entity

Generally, a limited liability company or other unincorporated business entity that has a single owner is disregarded for US tax purposes. The tax consequences of owning real property indirectly through a disregarded entity are substantially the same as if the property were held directly by the single owner of the disregarded entity.

Partnership

Real property that is owned by an entity that is classified as a partnership for US tax purposes generally is not subject to US federal income tax. Instead, the taxable income from the ownership and operation of the property ‘flows through’ the partnership to the partners, who are subject to tax on the share of that income which is distributed to them.

Regular corporation

If real property is owned by an entity that is classified as a corporation for US tax purposes, net income from the ownership and operation of the property is subject to two levels of federal income tax. First, the corporation is subject to tax on any net income at regular tax rates applicable to US corporations. In addition, dividends paid by the corporation to its shareholders are subject to tax at the shareholder level.

Real estate investment trust (REIT)

US tax law provides a tax-efficient treatment for a corporation (or trust) that qualifies for and elects to be taxed as a real estate investment trust (REIT). To qualify as a REIT, a corporation (or trust) must principally own interests in real estate and satisfy other highly technical organizational, income and ownership requirements. The governance and tax treatment of such entity is very complex. A REIT, assuming that it complies with various REIT requirements, will not be subject to US federal income tax.

State and local taxes

Income taxes

Most (but not all) states impose income tax on the net income generated from the ownership and operation of real property owned, and business activities conducted within, that state. Income taxes may also be imposed at the local (city and/or county) level.

Property taxes

Most states and/or localities (cities and counties) impose some form of ad valorem property tax on the ownership of real property. These taxes typically are computed as a percentage of the assessed fair market value of the property, and generally are not subject to offset or reduction.

Other taxes

The states and localities impose a variety of other taxes that may be relevant to the ownership and operation of real property, including sales and use taxes, transfer taxes and taxes on the logging of official records, franchise taxes and gross receipts taxes.

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe

There are no ongoing taxes levied by the revenue authority. The Municipal authority does however have the authority to charge property taxes, however this varies depending on the location of the property.